NATIONAL POLICY OF PAKISTAN 2005

POLICY VISION

"The National Environmental Policy aims at improving the quality of life of Pakistan by conserving, protecting and improving the Pakistan's environment and cooperation among the civil society, government agencies, private sectors and other stakeholders."

OBJECTIVES

• Maintain clean and healthy environment for the people of Pakistan.
• Achieve sustainable economic development by conserving and protecting the resources.
• Effective management of Pakistan's environment by involvement of stakeholders.

SECTORAL ISSUES

1. Water Supply and Management

To promote the clean and improve water supply and effective management of water resources the government shall:

• develop legal and policy frameworks
• increase water supply and water treatment facilities
• do water quality monitoring
• install water treatment plants
• promote metering of water consumption
• promote technologies for rain water harvesting
• enact Water Conservation Act

2. Energy Efficiency and Renewables

To promote energy efficiency and renewable resource use government shall:

• implement National Energy Policy
• enact energy conservation legislation
• strengthen financial mechanisms, institutions, policies and regulations
• promote energy efficiency imports
• implement a plan for shift of public transport to CNG
• promote renewable forms of energy
• institute National Energy Conservation Award

3. Agriculture and Livestock

To achieve sustainable agriculture and livestock government shall:

• promote organic farming
• launch programs to prevent soil degradation
• promote integrated pest management, safe use of insecticides, weedicide, fungicide and herbicide
• develop National Desertification Control Fund
• enhance compatible ecological cropping system
• increase livestock production
• promote recycling of agricultural products
• promote high productivity varieties of livestock

4. Forestry and Plantations

For better management of forests and enhance plantations government shall:

• finalize National Forest Policy
• set up institutions and legal frameworks to promote forest governance
• promote social forestry
• promote farm forestry and irrigated plantation
• sustainably manage riverine forest
• Develop a strategy and plan for managing mangrove forests
• strengthen forestry research and training institutions
• promote sustainable management of rangelands and pastures

5. Biodiversity and Protected Areas

To promote sustainable use of sustainable biodiversity and management of protected areas government shall:

• implement Biodiversity Action Plan
• create new national parks and protected areas
• make a strategy to combat invasive species
• make wise use of wetland resources
• promote ex situ conservation of biodiversity
• implement national wetland policy
• protect fish habitat and harvest fisheries in sustainable way

6. Air Quality and Noise

To prevent air pollution and noise government shall:

• enforce ambient and indoor air quality standards
• enact National Clean Air Act
• enforce National Environmental Quality Standards
• use catalytic converters in vehicles
• promote cleaner production technologies
• phase out two stroke vehicles
• establish and enforce ambient noise standards
• implant the Pakistan Clean Air Program

7. Climate Change and Ozone Depletion

To address the challenges faced by climate change and ozone depletion government shall:

• implement national climate change action plan
• develop National Clean Development Authority
• phase out ozone depleting substances

8. Pollution and Waste Management

To prevent pollution and waste management government shall:

• enforce National Environmental Quality Standards
• introduce discharge licensing system for country
• develop and implement National Sanitation Policy
• promote reuse, recycle and reduce mechanism for waste handling
• promote ISO 14000 certification
• implement strategies to manage municipal, industrial and hospital waste at national, local and regional levels

CROSS SECTORAL ISSUES

1. Population and Environment

To address population environment nexus government shall:

• incorporate environmental considerations into population policies, projects and programs
• increase public awareness of  problems of population 
• ensure equal access of land and resources to population

2. Gender and Environment

Environmental policies programs and projects are gender sensitive. For this government shall:

• ensure women active participation in all environmental projects and programs
• mainstream gender in all policies and programs

3. Health and Environment

To reduce health hazards due to environmental degradation government shall:

• develop and implement Occupational Health and Safety Rules
• include effective waste management system in all health care facilities

4. Trade and Environment

In this case government shall:

• certify the public and private sector environmental laboratories
• provide financial and other incentives

5. Poverty and Environment

• Government shall integrate poverty environment issues in economic policies and plans.
• It shall enhance community level environmental management.

6. Environment and Local Governance

• Government shall establish nationwide district environment offices and district environment committees.
• establish district development funds

7. Natural Disaster Management

• Government shall develop a national disaster management strategy.
• It shall also establish national disaster management centers at federal and provincial level.

POLICY INSTRUMENTS

The key instruments for implementation of policies are listed as:

• Integration of environment into development planning
• Legislation and regulatory framework
• Capacity Development
• Economic and Market based instruments
• Public Awareness and Education
• Public Private Partnership

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WHAT IS CLEANER PRODUCTION?

INTRODUCTION

Different approaches are used to deal with environmental degradation problems since over long time industrialization was started in different nations. The approaches such as to avoid the problem; to dilute the pollutants so that to reduce the impacts of pollutants; treat the pollution after it happens (end of pipe solution); prevent the pollution at source by cleaner production techniques were used. It is clear from the approaches that from over long time shift has been taken place from avoid to prevent that would enhance the economic investments, and improve the environment. This is the primary goal of cleaner production.

"Cleaner production is defined as the adoption of integrated preventive environmental strategies applied to processes, products and services in order to reduce the impacts, risk and harm to the environment and humans." 

Cleaner Production in terms of Production Processes

Cleaner Production in terms of production includes the care taken during the production processes such as preservation of raw materials, prohibition of toxic raw materials use and declining the amounts of waste production and toxicity.

Cleaner Production in terms of Product Processes

Cleaner Production in terms of product involves the care taken in product development and design e.g. reduction of harmful impacts in the whole life cycle of product development from raw materials mining to disposal of wastes. 

Cleaner Production in terms of Services Processes

During the delivery of services environmental parameters should be taken into account.

Difference between Pollution Control and Cleaner production

The basic difference between pollution control and cleaner production is of time. Pollution control is done after the pollution occurs means end of pipe treatment, react and than treat. While cleaner production deals with prevention, prevention of pollution at source by using cleaner production techniques. It is said that prevention is better than cure. Cleaner production reduce or can completely eliminate the pollution control strategy. Cleaner production is applied already in fisheries, agriculture, tourism, transportation, hospitals, energy systems etc.

CLEANER PRODUCTION PRINCIPLES

• Aim is to reduce the environmental and social impacts
• Reduce the raw materials use and energy inputs
• Reduce the toxicity of emissions and waste production
• Use of system analysis approach
• Production process is divided into inputs, activities and outputs
• It use the waste management hierarchy that is:
• Avoidance is better than reduction, reduction is better than reuse, disposal is on least priority. 

CLEANER PRODUCTION TECHNIQUES

Techniques used are:

Technological Advances

New equipments or new technologies are used such as heat exchangers used to capture heat from refrigerators.

Design Specifications

It is applied in the planning stage of development process

Housekeeping

Proper maintenance and proper workplace practices is one of better practice in clean production.

Process Optimization

Existing process could be optimized in order to reduce resource consumption patterns.

Raw material Substitution

Hazardous raw materials could be replaced with efficient raw materials.

BENEFITS OF CLEANER PRODUCTION

• Reduction of environmental impacts and risks.
• Improvement in production efficiencies
• Decline in energy use and production of waste
• Decrease in operating cost

RISKS AND BARRIERS OF CLEANER PRODUCTION

• Hinderence by management to introduce change
• High upfront cost with long paybacks
• Some measures are not applicable to short buisness

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ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS

Environmental Ethics assume that moral norms govern the

human behavior towards natural world.

Many ethics regarding the environment were presented by environmentalists. These are as follows:

UNIVERSALISTS 

• Plato and Kant presented this ethic. The concept describes that fundamental ethics are universal and  unchanging. 
• The rules of right and wrong are valid without concerning the interests, desires and attitude.
• God has created these rules or these are revealed for any reason and knowledge.

RELATIVISTS

• This ethic was of Sophists. It claims that moral principles are relative to any particular person, society or condition.
• Ethical values are context based.
• Friedrich Nietzsche's said that there are no facts only interpretations.

NIHILISTS

This ethic was given by Schopenhauer. Very dark view was given by him. He said the World has no sense at all. Life is dark. To exist on earth unceasing struggle is required. Its just like eat or to be eaten. There is no such thing that is good in life. Life is about suffering, pain, uncertainty and despair.

LAND ETHIC

• Land Ethic was presented by Aldo Leopold. According to this ethic, Land is not considered as mere object or dead thing to be owned as property. 
• Land life is a living thing. It should be viewed as living organism...
• According to this, preserve all the forms of life on the earth to maintain the stability of world. When small changes occur in the system, the system self sustained it.
• Leopold made a conclusion that a thing is right when it maintains the integrity and stability of biotic community  otherwise it is wrong.

ENVIRONMENTAL STEWARDSHIP

• This ethic represents the views that there should be care of the place and to manage it properly.
• We are partners of nature rather than masters of it.
• There should be collaboration with nature to sustain it and make it a better place.
• According to Islamic Scholar Dr. AbuBakar Ahmad Bagader " everything in this universe has the value. God gives the humans stewardship on the earth. And man is a manager on earth not a proprietor, a beneficiary not a disposer; Man should care the earth and use it as trustee.

ECOFEMINISM

• It is a pluralistic (Freedom of Thought), relationship oriented and non hierarchical philosphy. 
• According to this people see themselves in coperation with others not in competition, network of personal relationships rather than isolated egos.

UTILITARIANS

• This ethic is about utilization of resources.
• Jeremy Bentham has the philosophy that said Goodness brings happiness and happiness brings pleasure.
• John Stuart Mill said that pleasures of intellect are greater than pleasures of the body.
• By inspiring these philosophies Giffort Pinchot believed that greatest good for the greatest number of people for long time.

ANTHROPOCENTRISM

• It is a human centered approach.
• It describes that humans only have intrinsic values that have only worth.
• Things are good because they are human interest.
• Animals are valuable because humans use them for various purposes for their ease.

BIOCENTRISM

• It is a life centered approach.
• Famous phrase regarding this ethic is revenge for life means to enhance life not to harm it.

ECOCENTRISM

• It is based on ecological perspective.
• This depicts that not only living organisms but also non living things such as forests, rivers, also have moral values.   

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EVOLUTION OF ENVIRONMENTAL THINKING AND CURRENT ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

EVOLUTION OF ENVIRONMENTAL THINKING

The impacts caused by human activities to environment were recognized globally known as environmental impacts.

1940s

In 1948 IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources) was made.  It acted as Inter governmental body. IUCN in current time has several civil socirty organizations as its members.

1950s

• DDT (Dichloro diphenyl trichloroethane) was detected in the flesh of flightless penguins of Antarctica.
• Letchworth Garden City was built in this time period.
• Electron capture detector was invented that could measure the man made chemicals in minutes quantities.

1960s

• In 1962 a book Silent Spring was published by Rachel Carson.
• Wildlife was diminishing in this time so attention was given to wildlife protection.
• Lacey Act: Lacey Act was proposed for the prohibition of animals killing and to ensure to increase the number of game animals and birds. 
• Endangered Species Protection Act was proposed in 1966.
• Endangered Species Conservation Act was introduced in 1969.
• Different environmental NGOs were set up in 1960s such as:
• Sierra Club
• Nature Conservancy
• Friends of Earth
• WWF (World Wildlife Funds) was set up in 1961 initially for the purpose of protection of animals.

1970s

• Pakistan Wildlife Appeal was set up i 1971 that later on became the National Organization of WWF as WWF Pakistan.
• Acid Rain concept was initialized in industrialized countries.

1980s

Following events took place in this time period:

• Ozone Depletion
• Greenhouse Effect
• Chernobyl Nuclear disaster
• Protection of animals and plants that depends on perticular habitat.
• World Wildlife Fund become World Wide Fund (WWF) 
• Development of World Conservation Strategy
• Development of Pakistan Conservation Strategy

1990s

In 1990s following acts were proposed:

• United Nations Conference of Environment and Development ( Earth Summit) in Rio de jenario Brazil.
• Pakistan Environmental Protection Act (PEPA), 1997
• National Environmental Quality Standards (NEQS)

2000s

World Summit on Sustainable Development held in Johannesurg in 26 August to 4 September 2002.

ISSUES IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

• Food Shortage
• Illiteracy
• Deforestation, Overgrazing
• Inadequate supply of drinking water
• Foreign debt burden
• Poverty
• Increase in human poplation
• Poor enforcement of laws
• Poor Sanitation
• Urbanization
• Industrialization 

Major Issues

• Acid Rain
• Ozone depletion
• Ozone Depletion
• Threat to biological diversity

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PAKISTAN ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY, ACT (PEPA)

REVIEW OF IEE AND EIA REGULATIONS

To implement the powers by section 33 of PEPA Act, 1997 the PEPA has develop some rules:

Before describing the rules let's briefly describe the EIA and IEE. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is defined as it is a process for evaluating the environmental impacts of any project or development. These impacts included socio economic, cultural and health impacts. These impacts can be beneficial or adverse. Initial Environmental Examination (IEE) is held initially before helding a project It also measures the environmental impacts, their monitoring and evaluation.

The rules are as follows:

1) SHORT TITLE AND COMMENCEMENT

These regulations are named as PEPA IEE and EIA Regulations, 2000.

2) PROJECTS REQUIRING AN IEE

Any follower of project falling in any category described in Schedule I shall file an IEE with Federal Agency under Section 12.

3) PROJECTS REQUIRING AN EIA

Any follower of project falling in any catagory discussed in Schedule II shall file an EIA with Federal Agency under Section 12.

4) PROJECTS NOT REQUIRING AN IEE OR EIA

Projects not falling in any of the category described in Schedule I or Schedule II shall not file an IEE or EIA.

5) PREPARATION OF IEE AND EIA

For the preparation of IEE and EIA the Federal Agency issue the guidelines.

6) REVIEW FEES

The proponent of the project shall pay the review fees that is not reimbursed at the time of submission of IEE and EIA.

7) FILING OF IEE AND EIA

10 hard and 2 soft copies of IEE and EIA shall be given to Federal Agency with documents attached to each copy: an application and a copy of receipt of payment of review fees.

8) PUBLIC PARTICIPATION

Proponent or Federal Agency shall publish a public notice for hearing in local newspaper in either English or Urdu. The notice included the date, place and time of public hearing and the date should not be earlier than 30 days of the notice published in paper.

9) REVIEW

The review period for IEE is 45 days and for EIA it is 90 days. The Federal Agency review the IEE and EIA in these respective times after the submission to Agency.

10) APPROVAL

It takes about four months to Federal Agency to either approve or disapprove the IEE or EIA.

11) EXTENSION IN APPROVAL TIME

Federal Agency could extend the time of approval for any specific case for the communication of approval.

12) VALIDITY PERIOD FOR APPROVAL

The validity period usually given to the project for IEE and EIA is 3 years but it could be extended by the Agency.

13) INSPECTION

The Federal Agency has the power to inspect any matter regarding project during the construction of project. Agency could visit and inspect the site. Proponent should cooperate with the Agency.

14) MONITORING

The proponent shall submit the reports of monitoring and implementation of mitigation measures in daily routine to Agency.

15) REGISTERS OF IEE AND EIA PROJECTS

Federal Agency maintain all the registers of IEE and EIA.

16) CANCELLATION OF APPROVAL

Any project that is approved could be cancelled in case of any unsatisfaction of project by Agency. The Federal Agency shall issue a notice to proponent before cancellation that include the reason why the project would be cancelled.

SCHEDULE I

LIST OF PROJECTS REQUIRING IEE

A. Agriculture, Livestock, Fisheries

• Poultry, livestock and fishfarms with cost more than Rs. 100 million
• Projects of agriculture products, repacking, formulation, warehousing.

B. Energy

• Hydropower generation less than 50  MW
• Thermal Power Generation less than 200 KW
• Tranmission lines less than 11 KV
• Many other projects

C. Manufacturing and Processing

• Food Processing industries, beverages, sugar mills, dairy all with cost of less than Rs. 100 million.
• Man made and resins projects with total cost of less than Rs. 100 million.
• Wood products with total cost of Rs. 25 million.
• Many others

D. Mining and Mineral Processing

• Smelting pants with total cost of less than Rs. 50 M.
• Crushing, Grinding and Separation

E. Water management, dams, irrigations and Floods Management

• Dams with storage of less than 50 million cubic m.
• Irrigation and drainage projects serving  less than 15,000 hectares.

F. Water Supply and Treatment

• Water supply or treatment plants with cost of less than Rs. 25 million

SCHEDULE II

PROJECTS REQUIRING AN EIA

Energy

• Hydropower generation more than 50  MW
• Thermal Power Generation more than 200 KW
• Tranmission lines 11 KV or more

 Manufacturing and Processing

• Food Processing industries, beverages, sugar mills, dairy all with cost of Rs. 100 million or more. 
• Man made and resins projects with total cost of Rs. 100 million and more.
• Fertilizer Plant
• Chemical Plant
• Cement Projects
• Many others

Mining and Mineral Processing

• Smelting pants with total cost of Rs. 50 M and more.
• Mining of copper, gold, coal, sulphur and precious stones.

Water management, dams, irrigation and Floods Management

• Dams with storage of 50 million cubic m or above.
• Irrigation and drainage projects serving  15,000 hectares or more.

Water Supply and Treatment

Water supply or treatment plants with cost of Rs. 25 million or more.

SCHEDULE III

IEE/ EIA REVIEW FEES

Cost of Project upto 50 lakh is nil for IEE and EIA. Cost ranging from 50 lakh to 1 Crore  are Rs. 10,000 and 15,000 respectively for IEE and EIA. Project cost above than 1 crore have the review fees of Rs. 15,000 and 20,000 respectively for IEE and EIA.

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NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL ACTION PLAN

HISTORY OR BACKGROUND ENVIRONMENTAL ACTS

First time the trial to introduce the Environmental Legislation in Pakistan was done in 1977. From 1977 to onward many environmental policies, regulations and institutions were built at federal and provincial level. These include:

• Ministry of Environment
• Environmental Protection Agencies
• Pakistan Environmental Protection Act, 1997
• Pakistan Environmental Protection Ordinance, 1983
• Pakistan National Conservation Strategy (NCS), 1992
• Mid Term Review of NCS, 1999
• NEAP was approved by Chief Executive of Pakistan Environmental Protection Council in February, 2001

DEVELOPMENT OBJECTIVES OF NEAP

The development objectives of NEAP are as follows:

• To start such actions and programs:  

1. to gain such environment that improve and maintain the public health

2. promote sustainable living

3. and to increase quality of life of population of Pakistan

• Focus to instant measures to remediate the deteriorating quality of air, water and land by the help of government agencies and civil societies.
• NEAP has the focus on addressing the issues of poverty environment nexus.
• Its focus is towards the limited number of areas where impact could be seen earlier.
• It suggests a programme approach that has the flexibility in addressing the core issues, dealing effectively with priorities, addressing the cross cutting issues such as gender, poverty reduction, capacity building.

PRGRAMME OBJECTIVES 

Following measures are taken to achieve the objectives of NEAP:

• Focus is on activities completion and providing the services in order to reduce the poverty via environmental projects
• According to Pakistan Environmental Protection Act, 1997 the policies focused on the reduction of health risks in poor community of population. 
• Programmes for addressing the deforestation, desertification, rangeland degradation will be incorporated with other social organization at base level.
• Poverty alleviation programs will be supported to make the programs environmentally effective and prevent the impacts on poor.
• The technical and human resources that are available in Pakistan will be used maximally.  
• To fulfill these programme objectives NEAP proposed the common institutional framework that provide sufficient resources, give professional leadership, monitoring and implementation of system and political commitments to program. 
• Private sectors and NGOs are also promoted to incorporate with projects.

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LOVE CANAL TRAGEDY

INTRODUCTION

Love Canal is a canal existed in Niagara Falls, New York. Love Canal is named after William T. Love. Love Canal Tragedy is concerned with the heavy amount of toxic waste disposal in canal and related health problems originated from the event.

LOVE DREAM

Love Canal was originally a dream community. A dream seen by William T. Love. He wanted to dig a short canal between upper and lower Niagara Rivers. The purpose for which the canal was made was to generate the electricity that could be supplied to industries and homes to make the city a model city. 

The Love dream was not able to endure the changes such as change in economy and Nicola Tesla discovery how to transmit economically the power to long distances through alternating current.

THE LOVE CANAL TRAGEDY

In 1910 Love dream was devastated by a trench dug at the site where Love Canal has to be started. By 1920 nightmare seeds were planted at the site. Gradually the canal was converting into a industrial waste dumpsite.

THE HOOKER CHEMICAL COMPANY

The main culprit behind the Love Canal was the Hooker Chemical Company. Hooker company needed a land to dispose off their waste. In 1942 the the Hooker got permission from Niagara Power and Development Company to dump their waste in canal. In 1947 Hooker purchased the canal and 70 foot wide banks on both sides of canal. He started dump his industrial waste and Niagara City and army also dump their waste in canal. In 1953 the city stopped dumping waste. The dumpsite was in operation till 1953. In the time period of 5 years 21,00 tons of chemical waste was dumped in the canal. The chemicals dumped were alkalies, fatty acids and chlorinated hydrocarbons released from dyes, perfumes, rubbers, solvents and resins. Hooker sold the canal for $1 in 1953.

DISASTROUS EFFECTS

• Twenty Five years after the company  has stopped dumping, 82 chemicals were percolated upward to soil. Eleven of them were found carcinogenic in nature. Thus leaching the soil and coming in basements of 100 homes and one public school built nearby.
• Even some of the landfills were closed down while they were fully filled but these acted like time bombs. After some months the Love Canal exploded and the effect was enhanced by heavy rainfall and then leaching started.
• Drums of waste were breaking and exploding the backyards of grounds.
• The trees and gardens were dying and were changing into black.
• One whole swimming pool was exploded with the waste.
• The children who were playing they have burns on their hands and faces.
• Everywhere in air there was bad choking smell.
• Than birth defects were alarming in the areas. Miscarriages were increasing. About 5 defect cases were investigated.
• The blood cell count was increased in the people leading to the disease leukemia.

STRATEGIES TO REMEDIATE THE SITUATION

• A drain was built and a collection system of wastes was made to clean the waste.
• Large pipes were built to carry the waste to sewers.
• Laws were made to decide where to dump the hazardous waste.
• All dioxins and chemical contained water was removed.
• Hooker company was guilty for all the tragic incident.
• Hooker was sued with $200,000,000.

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THE GREEN REVOLUTION

What is Green Revolution?

There were many revolutions occurred throughout the history such as American Revolution and Industrial Revolution. The Green Revolution occurred in in mid and late 20th century and in this period global agricultural yield was increased dramatically. 

Why Productivity increased?

• The productivity in agriculture field was due to new technological advances in agriculture.
• New chemical fertilizers, herbicides and pesticides were made.
• The chemical fertilizers were used to increase the nutrient content in crops and to provide better yield of crops.
• Herbicides and pesticides were used to kill the pests, herbs and insects. These also controlled the diseases.
• High yield crops were produces and used in the field. These are the crops that are designed to produce more yield.
• Multiple Cropping was also adopted in that period. Multiple cropping is the method in which two or more than two crops are grown in the field throughout thee year to gain more yield. The productivity is gained throughout the year via any of the crops. 

Benefits of Green Revolution

•    Production of large amount of food that meet the demand of increasing human population
•    Norman Borlaug is a famous name when we talk about Green Revolution. His contribution in Green Revolution was great. In 1940s , he produces a strain of wheat that was short in size in Mexico. The wheat has the ability to resist the disease and due to its short nature the wheat was resistant from wind damage. This wheat production was tripled in next twenty years. Through this the food production in Mexico was increased. The other countries also took help from Norman Borlaug to produce wheat in their countries. He helped other developing countries to produce the wheat and to increase their food supply. From Mexico the the export of wheat was also done. He won the Noble peace peace for his remarkable work. He was able to increase the crop yield and help prevent the starvation in many developing countries.
• In addition to food production, the Green Revolution also made it possible to grow more crops at the same time on same land (multiple cropping). It reduced the cost of production and made the prizes low in the market of food.
• Multiple cropping has also the benefit t he environment in a way that forest cutting will not be necessary to convert the forest land to agriculture land for the need to grow more crops. 
• The land not used by agriculture becomes a natural habitat for animals and plants.

Problems with Green Revolution

• Inspite of many benefits the problems were also faced. 
• The use of chemical fertilizers, herbicides and pesticides have the bad effect environment.
• These materials led to the pollution in soil and water. 
• Soil quality was disturbed. Soil fertility was reduced and soil erosion like problems were caused.
• Water was polluted that affect the people as well.
• The  increase in crop yield required more water. This caused a pressure on the natural water reserves. That led to water shortages and droughts conditions.
• More energy was consumed in this period due to the utilization of more fossil fuels, machines inspite of human and animal power. Between 1990 and 2000 about 80 % of energy was consumed in agriculture. This consumption of more fossil fuels caused the pollution in environment. 

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THE DUST BOWL OF AMERICA IN 1930's

Introduction

The dust bowl in America is a catastrophe event occurred in early 1930's. It caused the Midwestern and western farmlands conversion to wastelands. The major reason behind the dust bowl was series of dry years faced in America with vast agricultural practices in unsuitable areas. 

Impacts 

• Poor tillage practices causes the dust storms and droughts that that devastated the farm lands and ranches in Great Plains.
• This disaster left nothing behind no humans no nutrients and no plants cover.
• The humans moved towards other areas that have more fertile farmlands

Events that led to Dust Bowl

• The European settlers arrived in the Great Plains. 
• They build the farms and ranches. Cattle ranching provide the benefit for users but ranching caused the overgrazing and degradation of soil.
• Farmers plow the natural grass and replace them with their own crop.
• Row crops caused the damage to soil because the land between the rows is barren and it is exposed to wind so it leads to soil erosion. 
• Precipitation was less in the region. Less rainfall left the soil dry and it was impossible than to cultivate that land again.
• The dry soil blew with wind and carried the soil dust to 100 of miles. It led to dust storm and dust bowl event.
• These dust storms buried the roads and buildings under sand.

Agricultural Practices and Factors that control Wind Erosion

• Cover Crops are used to cover when low residue crops are used.
• Crop Rotation is a good practice. It is the practice in which different types of crops are grown in the same area for many benefits such as to avoid pests and pathogens, to increase the fertility demands. 
• Tillage Practices control wind erosion
• Irrigation is good practice, because wet soil blows less.
  

Government Efforts

• Extensive efforts were done by both Federal and State Government.
• Develop many programs for soil erosion
• Rehabilitation for settlers who are affected.

Lessons Learnt

• Farmers learnt how to return wheat stubble and straw from harvesting
• Plantation of clover and alfalfa produce organic matter, nitrogen, and it binds the soil. It also absorbs the rain water.
• Instructions were given to cattle ranchers to prevent overgrazing.

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GLOBAL WATER PROBLEMS

The freshwater available on the planet earth is enough that it can meet the demands of humans. But the distribution of water is not proper. For Example the Citizens of Bahrain, a tiny island in Persian Golf, have no freshwater availability and they desalinize the water for use. The per capita utilization of water vary from continent to continent and from one country to other country. Some countries receive the more water but their utilization is not proper while some have low water availability but they use it in effective way. South America and Asia together receives almost half the share of water resources of world. South America receives more water compared to Asia but South America has not the much potential to support the people with water. That's why the water falls in Amazon River that has poor soil and it does not support the agriculture. Asia receives less water than South America but water supply support the humans because the land where precipitation falls is suitable for agriculture. 

Global water supply greatly depends on the stable runoff. For example, India has wet season from June to September. Although the precipitation is high but their utilization is low because the water quickly runoff to the rivers and water is not available during rest of months.

Drinking Water Problems

Many developing countries have lack of water supply for drinking purpose. According to WHO there are about 1.4 billion people that  lack the access to safe drinking water supply. These estimates also represents that 2.9 billion people have not the access to dispose wastewater and fecal waste. According to WHO 80 % of human illness are caused by insufficient water supply, water poor quality and lack of sanitation facility. The US agency for International development assisted the areas that are subject to drought in the Sahel regions of Africa. Both United Nations and World Bank are dealing with water management projects.

Water Problems and Population Growth

Population growth is exceeding the water demands of countries. In India 20 % of population has the access to only 4 % of world's freshwater and 8000 villages have no local water for use. One third of wells in Beijing have been dried. The main aquifer that is supplying water to Mexico is dropping at the rate of 3.5 m per year. Global water shortage also leads to shortage of food supply.

Water Resource Sharing among Countries

Water is often an international  resource. About three fourth of world's 200 watersheds are shared between atleast 2 countries. Management of rivers are are on cross boundaries needs international cooperation between countries.

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PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH WATER RESOURCES

Water resources problems can be classified into 3 categories: Too much water, Too little water and water contamination. The problems like floods and droughts are natural events that are one of the water resource problem. These problems can also originate when the humans do not take right decision such as they build in areas that are in danger of flooding.

TOO MUCH WATER

Too much water represents the floods. Floods are caused when the rivers spilled over and surrounds the surrounding land. In ancient Egypt this happened an after floods a thin layer of sediments accumulated in soil that enriched the soils with nutrients. In ancient times property loss or life loss was not as much high as in today life. 

Damage

Modern floods cause the widespread destruction in terms of property loss and loss of life. This is due to the humans who build their houses or buildings in the flood plain areas (areas that border a river and prone to floods). They remove the plantations from the areas that absorb the flood water and enriches the soil with nutrients. Hence the property and life loss occurs at higher rate. Floods are more destructive in nature as in US 9 out of 10 disasters are of floods.

Causes of Floods

As the forests on the mountains, hillsides are best absorbers of water coming from rainfall. When the forests are cut down the heavy rainfall causes the soil erosion and it make the lowlands at the risk of flooding. 

The other reason is that humans remove the plantations from flood prone areas and made their buildings or roads. As paved roads and buildings cannot absorb the water so the water runoff to the sewers. These leads to flooding.

Measures to prevent Floods

To prevent the floods the levees are built near rivers but in floods expensive levees even fails. There should be a restrict ban to build on flood plain areas. In California January 1997 flood, 8 people were killed, more than 16,000 homes were damaged and more than $1.6 billion was damaged. 

TOO LITTLE WATER

In Africa and Asia 40 % of population live in the arid or semi arid areas. They have to walk miles to carry water with them from rivers but that water is heavy water. Water shortage occurs due to overdrawing of surface water, aquifer depletion and salinization of irrigated soil. 

Surface Water Removal

When surface surface water is removed, wetlands dry up, Estuaries (where rivers falls in oceans) become salty.  In arid American Southwest it is uncommon that 70 % of water is withdrawn. 

Aquifer Depletion 

The over use of groundwater by humans cause the aquifers depletion. Aquifers can dry up if its use has been exceeded. The San Joaquin Valley has been sunk to 10 m due to aquifer depletion over past 50 years. Saltwater intrusion, mixing of seawater with freshwater aquifer occurs due to aquifer depletion.

Salinization of irrigated soil

When irrigation is done , it increases the productivity of soil but it also accumulates the salts in the soil that phenomenon is known as salinization. Saline soil causes the low or no productivity of soil and it is also not good or fit for crops yield.

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HYDROLOGIC CYCLE AND FRESHWATER SUPPLY

HYDROLOGIC CYCLE

"The continuous circulation of water through abiotic environment from ocean to atmosphere than atmosphere to land and than back to the oceans is called hydrologic cycle. It is complex cycle."

Hydrologic cycle maintains a balance of water among oceans, land and atmosphere. 

Sea Water

Sea Water accounts a large portion of water on earth surface. Almost 97 % of water of earth surface is found in the oceans. The oceans consist of dissolved salts. Sea water is too saline that if this saline water is given to plants, the plants will die. Humans can also not utilize this water for drinking purpose. 

Fresh Water

The percentage of freshwater on the earth surface is very low. Only 2.5 % fresh water is there on earth but from this 2.5 %,  1.97 % water is in frozen form in polar ice or glaciers that is not in use for humans; 0.5 % water is available in ground water; Only 0.03 % water is available in lakes, rivers, streams, soil moisture and atmosphere. It can been seen from the values that less than 1 % water is available to humans.

• Surface Water

Surface water is a fresh water present in lakewetlands are the areas that are covered with water for some part of the year. Surface water is refilled by runoff of precipitation or rainfall. Thus it can be said that this is a renewable resource although it is finite. Watershed is the land area that is drained by river and its tributaries.

s, streams, ponds, reservoirs and wetlands. While

• Groundwater

Earth surface has underground formations like pathways for the flow of water. Rain water or snow melted water seeps through soil and they make their ways in the soil through cracks in rocks until no impermeable layer restrict them. These form the groundwater. Groundwater make its way toward rivers, oceans or springs.

• Aquifers

The porous layers of rocks that stores the water are called aquifers. These can be confined aquifers or unconfined aquifers. Confined aquifers are those aquifers that are formed between the impermeable rock layers. While unconfined aquifers are those aquifers in which upper layer of rocks is permeable that allows the water to seep down and replace the aquifer. The upper limit of the unconfined aquifers below which the water is saturated is known as water table.

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