ESTABLISHMENT OF NEW PLANT POPULATIONS

  

Methods to establish new plant populations are different from establishing vertebrate or animal populations. Animals can move from one place to another in search of food or moisture conditions. In plants the seeds are dispersed to the other sites through wind, water and animals or by conservation biologists activity.
When a seed is planted on a site it is unable to move even if a suitable site exists at few meters distance. The immediate small suitable site is necessary in case when environmental conditions become harsh e.g. the weather is too hot, too wet, too dry or too shady. In these conditions the seeds either don't germinate or plants die. Plants are vulnerable to attacks by insects, pests and fungi. Fire also disturb the seeds establishment.

Considerations while reintroduction of Plants
  • Careful site selection should be taken into account otherwise plants will not be able to survive or flower.
  • Those factors should be identified that cause the decline in plants species.
  • Management techniques should be developed to manage the introduce and native species.
Some plant populations fail to establish when seeds are planted at the sites even sites were found suitable for them. In a case seeds of 6 annual plants species were planted in 48 suitable sites. After 2 years the plant population persisted on 5 sites and after 6 years population persisted on only 1 site. At these successful sites the population size of species of plants increased to 10,000 and it spread to 30 m around margins of marshy pond.
In another case seeds of 35 perennial herbs species were sown at 173 sites. No seedling was observed at 167 sites out of 173 sites. No individuals were seen at 32 out of 35 species.

The problem arise while sowing the seeds is that the species did not mimic the natural process exactly. To overcome these problems new techniques were introduced such as:
  • Fencing to exclude animals
  • Removal of existing vegetation
  • Plant nurse plants in arid regions
  • Adding mineral nutrients

Keys to Success

The keys to success are as follows:
  • using as many sites as possible
  • use as many seeds and adult plants as possible
  • reintroducing species year after year at many sites
  • careful monitoring of seedlings and adults
Case Study

The large flowered fiddleneck is an annual plant belonging from northern California. It has not a wide range. These species decline due to livestock grazing and fire suppression. Reintroduction of these fiddleneck was done with careful considerations such as management of grass specific herbicides and burning. This was first implemented in experiment than it was applied to natural population resulting in increase in plant population.



CONSIDERATIONS FOR SUCCESSFUL PROGRAMS

  

Establishment of new populations is quite difficult and expensive and it requires long term and serious commitments. The programs to capture, raise and monitor the species such as condor, peregrine falcon, ferrets millions of dollars are required and millions of year work is needed. When species are long lived they required that much time to take care of the program. Emotional public issues were raised while decision making of reintroduction of grizzly bears, grey wolf programs, black footed ferrets and California condor.

Criticism

Criticism regarding this reintroduction programs raised were:

  • Waste of Money
  • Unnecessary
  • Intrusive
  • Poorly run
  • Unethical
Answers to these Questions

The answers to these questions is simple that not every endangered specie is suited for reintroduction program. A well designed and well run reintroduction program proves to be best option for the endangered species that are at the verge of extinction. It is very important to explain the goals of programs to the local people. Public acceptance should be involved. Local community should be addressed with the need of these programs rather than the enforcement by laws and regulations. 

Genetic component should be taken into account in reintroduction programs. Captive bred animals lose their genetic variability. The captive animals grown in captivity from generations leads to gene frequency changes such as in Pacific Salmon. Careful selection of animals should be done against inbreeding depression and to produce more genetically diverse populations.

Soft Release

"Animals need special care and attention during and after the release of species. This approach is known as soft release."

Animals have to be fed and sheltered at release point. They are initially kept in cages at release point so that they are familiar of the area and than they are gradually released into the wild. 

Hard Release

"Release of animals from captivity to wild without any initial subsistence such as food supplementation is known as hard release."

This results in the dispersion of groups from the protected areas and it proves to be a failed effort.

Interventions are necessary for the survival of species especially in droughts or low food abundance conditions. Outbreaks of diseases and pests must be monitored. Impact of human activities such as agriculture and farming must be seen. 

Reintroduction programs have gained educational value. The efforts to reintroduce and preserve the Golden Lion Temarins in Bazil has become a rallying point for protecting the last fragments of Atlantic coastal forests.
Captive bred Arabian Oryx has become a national symbol and became the employment source for people of Bedouins.

Monitoring Programs

These programs are important in determining whether the reintroduction programs are achieving their stated goals. Monitoring elements are:
Determining the animals that are released are survived or not? 
Establishing breeding population than seeing if this population is increasing over time and geographical range.

A Case Study
Red Wolves Reintroduction

Red Wolves were reintroduced in Alligator river National Wildlife Refuge in northeastern north California. 42 captive bred species were introduced. Survival observed was 50 % after 3 years and 23 pups were produced. Animals established here survived by hunting on raccoons and eating carrion. This program was proved to be successful effort.



BEHAVIORS OF RELEASED ANIMALS WHILE INTRODUCTION AND REINTRODUCTION PROGRAMS

  



If we want to make reintroduction and introduction programs successful than behaviors of released animals should be addressed while releasing the animals in any habitat.
Social Animals Learning: When social animals such as mammals and birds grow in wild, they learn about their environment from their members of community especially from their partners. They learn how to interact with other members of the population. They learn how to search for food, how to get that and consume that food. 
For Carnivores such as lions and wild dogs, hunting techniques are complex and these require a teamwork.
Herbivores such as Hornbills and Gibbons have to learn the seasonal migration patterns to obtain the variety of food by covering a large area to make them alive. They are also taught in family groups how to capture  and find food. Many species perform some cues or rituals to attract the mate. 

ANIMALS RAISED IN CAPTIVITY

Animals that are raised in captivity (in separate preserved area species are grown with special conditions provision) they are restricted to a cage or pen and no exploration to other animals in wild is required. They have no need to learn how to search food or how to compete with other species for food. They are not learned how to interact with other species. They are given food on schedule in their cages. Social behavior of species are greatly effected by captivity because they are grown alone in unnatural grouping e.g. single gender or same age groups). Social skills are not developed in that individuals such as find food, sense, danger finding mate partners, raise young ones. 

TRAINING FOR BUILDING BEHAVIORAL SKILLS 

For overcoming this problem captive bred mammals and birds should be trained before and after releasing into the environment. They must learn how to avoid predators, find food, interact with other species. Captive animals are learnt how to fear from potential predators by frightening by a dummy predator. Captive techniques should be built. 
Examples
Captive Chimps for example are learnt how to use twigs to feed on termites or how to build nests in captivity.
Red Wolves are learnt how to kill live prey.

SOCIAL INTERACTIONS

Social interactions are one of the difficult behavior being adopted in species. One successful attempt used is to pair the captive bred individual with the wild animals and released together. Wild animals acted as instructors.
For example, Golden Lion Temarin wild specie is introduced with captive bred Golden Lion Temarin specie. Captive bred specie learn from wild ones.

Humans also mimic as predators to captive bred individuals so  to adapt them from predators. 
For Example, Condor hatchlings are not adapted to learn behavior of their relative wild species. They are fed with condor puppets and kept from sight of visitors so that they could recognize their own species and could differentiate their species from humans.
Some captive bred species when released in wild they mate with wild species and make a social group. They learned from them. But it is not a successful practice for birds. Wild birds during migration became a cause of high mortality rate of captive bred bald ibis.



ESTABLISHING NEW POPULATIONS TO CONSERVE ENDANGERED SPECIES

  

INTRODUCTION

Many endangered species are at verge of extinction, many conservation biologists are developing strategies or approaches to save these species. These approaches involve increasing size of existing population and establishing new wild or semi wild populations of rare species. These approaches allow the species living in captivity or in small isolated populations. The populations that are widely spread are less destroyed by events such as earthquakes, hurricanes, disease, epidemics). By increasing the population the chances of extinction reduces.
Establishment of new populations decline the original wild species of that area. For example a brown snake specie was introduced in Pacific Island where birds species already existed. Birds species were eliminated by the predation of snake. This was not a good reestablishment practice. Either snake species should be introduced into other island or birds species nests should be protected from snakes or birds species should be introduces into other islands. 

APPROACHES FOR ESTABLISHING NEW POPULATIONS

Three approaches are used to establish the new populations of animals and plants. These are as follows:
  • Reintroduction Program
  • Augmentation Program
  • Introduction Program
REINTRODUCTION PROGRAM

The reintroduction involves the releasing captive bred and wild collected animals in the areas that are in their historic range and where no species no longer existed. 
The main objective of reintroduction program is to provide new environment in original environment to species. For example reintroduction of grey wolves in Yellowstone National Park with the aim  to maintain the equilibrium of predators and herbivores existed in that habitat already. The individuals were released near the site where their ancestors lived and adapted to genetic modification or elsewhere within the range of species where new protected habitat is produced.
Reintroduction can also be termed as reestablishment, restoration or translocation. 

AUGMENTATION PROGRAM

It deals with releasing the individuals in the existing population to increase the size of population and to enhance gene pool. The individuals that are released may be captive bred or wild collected.

INTRODUCTION PROGRAM

It involves introducing the animals and plants to the areas that are outside their historic range. This approach is used in the case when existing habitat is destroyed to the level where species could no longer survive there and reintroduction program could not be possible there. These also may be captive bred or wild collected.
Care must be taken while introducing the species so that species does not damage the existing ecosystem or harm the population. Care must be taken so that introduced species could not acquire the diseases while in captivity. Species may also adapt genetically to its new environment. 


THE EARTH SUMMIT AND AGENDA 21

  

INTRODUCTION

The United Nations Conference on Human and Environment was a large event in Rio de Jenario Brazil in 1992 that bring together the Heads of State, Chief of Governments, Senior Diplomats, Government Officials, delegates from UN agencies, NGOs, Journalists and officials of International Organization.
The issues such as global climate change, biological diversity, deforestation, and desertification were concluded at Earth Summit. 
Agenda 21 was a special product of Earth Summit. It was a program for 21st century, approved by consensus among world leaders in Rio that represent 98 % of world population. This document is 700 pages long and covers all the areas of sustainable development.

OVERVIEW OF AGENDA 21

SECTION ONE: SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC DIMENSIONS

1. PREAMBLE

Agenda 21 is a dynamic program. This process marks the start of global partnership.

2. ACCELERATING SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

It calls for global partnership to increase the global economy by increasing the sustainable patterns of life.

3. COMBATING POVERTY

This objective is to improving access to safe drinking water and better sanitation to poor. improving education facility to poor, restoration of degraded land. It ensures the men and women equal rights and free decision making to spacing the number of children.

4. CHANGING CONSUMPTION PATTERNS

It focus on less dependence on earths finite resources, greater efficiency in energy and resources and changing unsustainable consumption patterns.

5. POPULATION AND SUSTAINABILITY

In this it is emphasized that health services should be women centered, women managed, safe reproductive health care  and affordable services. It also focus on reduction of infant death rate and low birth rate that stabilize the population at the end of century.

6. PROTECTING AND PROMOTING HUMAN HEALTH

It focus on fulfilling the basic health needs of populations especially in rural areas where health service facilities are less and they should be enhanced with advance health care services.

7. SUSTAINABLE HUMAN SETTLEMENT

It deals with access to land, credit, low cost building materials for homeless poor, upgrading of slums, access to services such as safe drinking water, sanitation, waste collection, increase use of public transport, use of bicycles ad pathways and improved living conditions in rural settlements. 

8. DECISION MAKING FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

It calls for the government to create the sustainable strategies and policies in all ministries. It encourages the nations and corporate enterprises to include environmental protection, degradation, and restoration cost in decision making. 

SECTION TWO: CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT OF RESOURCES

9. PROTECT ATMOSPHERE

It focus on expansion of renewable resources, enhance the sinks of greenhouse gases and control of transboundary pollution. Government shall develop the programs to detect the atmospheric pollutants, modernize the energy efficiency gaining power systems  and increase energy efficiency education.

10. MANAGING LAND SUSTAINABILITY

It calls for government to make policies for land resources base, enforce the laws and regulations for sustainable use of land and restrict the use of arable land to other uses. Use techniques that focus on ecosystems and watersheds such as landscape ecological planning.

11. COMBATING DEFORESTATION

It calls for international search and efforts to control forests cutting, uncontrolled degradation and conversion of other types of land use. Government shall plant trees to reduce pressure on old forests, breed more trees that are more productive and resistant to stress, protect the forests and reduce the pollutants.

12. COMBATING DESERTIFICATION AND DROUGHT

Government must adopt national land use plants, sustainable manage water resources, plant trees and reduce fuel wood and shift towards other energy efficient resources.

13. SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT

Population food demand must be fulfilled by increased productivity, increase cooperation of rural people, national governments, private sectors and international community. Techniques should be adopted for reducing food spoilage, loss of pests, water resources management and conserving soil.

14. CONSERVATION OF BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY

I involves the adopting of strategies for sustaining and preserving biological diversity.


15. MANAGEMENT OF BIOTECHNOLOGY

It includes developing vaccines and use of techniques for preventing diseases and toxins, increase crop resistance to pests and diseases. There shall be less use of chemical pesticides.

16. PROTECTION AND MANAGEMENT OF OCEANS

It deals with protection o oceans. Application of Polluter Pay Principle and giving incentives for reducing polluting in the oceans proves to be better management practices for oceans.

Other Points that comes under section 2 are :

17. PROTECTING AND MANAGING FRESHWATER (deals with fresh water resource management)
18. SAFE USE OF TOXIC CHEMICALS (deals with handling, disposal and safe use of chemicals)
19. MANAGING HAZARDOUS WASTES (deals with handling, safe use and disposal of hazardous waste)
20. MANAGING SOLID WASTE AND SEWAGE (deals with reduction of solid waste, proper management of sewage)
21. MANAGING RADIOACTIVE WASTE ( deals with great care taken for handling this waste and proper disposal techniques for waste handling)
22. SUSTAINABLE MOUNTAIN MANAGEMENT (deals with strategies for sustainable mountain ranges management)

SECTION THREE: 
STRENGTHENING ROLE OF MAJOR GROUPS

23. PREAMBLE

Implementation of objectives and policies in all programs of Agenda 21 and involvement of all social groups is the commitment described by this section.

24. WOMEN IN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

It describes that girls should have equal access to education, reduce workload on women, health care facilities should be provided to them and bring women in participation of cultural and public life. 

25. CHILDREN AND YOUTH IN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Access of secondary schooling should be given; Youth should be involved in  decision making to make environment effective; Youth International meeting should be held; they should have right to participate in the decision making at UN.

26. STRENGTHENING THE ROLE OF INDIGENOUS PEOPLE

Government should enroll indigenous people in global partnership, their rights should be saved and indigenous land should be protected from harmful environmental activities.

27. PARTNERSHIP WITH NGOs

NGOs should be involve in making policies and making decisions.

28. LOCAL AUTHORITIES

Local authorities such as women and youth should be involved in decision making planning and implementation process.

29. WORKERS AND TRADE UNIONS

Goal of employment and sustainable livelihood could be achieved by workers and trade union cooperation.

Other groups involved are:

30. BUSINESS AND INDUSTRY
31. SCIENTISTS AND TECHNOLOGISTS
32. STRENGTHENING ROLE OF FARMERS

SECTION FOUR: MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

33. FINANCING SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Huge sustainable development programs of Agenda 21 require developing countries for new additional financial resources.

34. TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER

Developed countries transfer the economic assistance n the form of technology to developing countries. 

35. SCIENCE FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

It focus on development of scientific enterprises. Lack of scientific information will not be an excuse for postponing the actions.

36. EDUCATION, TRAINING AND PUBLIC AWARENESS

Illiteracy must be reduced to half of its 1990 level. Environment and development should be included in the education and curriculum.

37. CREATING CAPACITY FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Developing countries need more technical assistance and cooperation
Assistance in the form of skills, knowledge and technical know how

38. ORGANIZING FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

To monitor the implementation of Agenda 21 includes organizing authorities such as General Assembly, Secretary General and commission on sustainable development.

39. INTERNATIONAL LAW

The goals in international laws on sustainable development include: development of universal agreements that create environmental standards for environment protection, international review of rights and obligations of nations and measures to avoid international disputes.

40. INFORMATION FOR DECISION MAKING

Information of status of urban air, water, land, desertification, biodiversity, seas, urbanization, poverty and health is needed for sustainable decision making of environment.


NATIONAL POLICY OF PAKISTAN 2005

  

POLICY VISION

"The National Environmental Policy aims at improving the quality of life of Pakistan by conserving, protecting and improving the Pakistan's environment and cooperation among the civil society, government agencies, private sectors and other stakeholders."

OBJECTIVES
  • Maintain clean and healthy environment for the people of Pakistan.
  • Achieve sustainable economic development by conserving and protecting the resources.
  • Effective management of Pakistan's environment by involvement of stakeholders.
SECTORAL ISSUES

1. Water Supply and Management

To promote the clean and improve water supply and effective management of water resources the government shall:
  • develop legal and policy frameworks
  • increase water supply and water treatment facilities
  • do water quality monitoring
  • install water treatment plants
  • promote metering of water consumption
  • promote technologies for rain water harvesting
  • enact Water Conservation Act
2. Energy Efficiency and Renewables

To promote energy efficiency and renewable resource use government shall:
  • implement National Energy Policy
  • enact energy conservation legislation
  • strengthen financial mechanisms, institutions, policies and regulations
  • promote energy efficiency imports
  • implement a plan for shift of public transport to CNG
  • promote renewable forms of energy
  • institute National Energy Conservation Award
3. Agriculture and Livestock

To achieve sustainable agriculture and livestock government shall:
  • promote organic farming
  • launch programs to prevent soil degradation
  • promote integrated pest management, safe use of insecticides, weedicide, fungicide and herbicide
  • develop National Desertification Control Fund
  • enhance compatible ecological cropping system
  • increase livestock production
  • promote recycling of agricultural products
  • promote high productivity varieties of livestock
4. Forestry and Plantations

For better management of forests and enhance plantations government shall:
  • finalize National Forest Policy
  • set up institutions and legal frameworks to promote forest governance
  • promote social forestry
  • promote farm forestry and irrigated plantation
  • sustainably manage riverine forest
  • Develop a strategy and plan for managing mangrove forests
  • strengthen forestry research and training institutions
  • promote sustainable management of rangelands and pastures
5. Biodiversity and Protected Areas

To promote sustainable use of sustainable biodiversity and management of protected areas government shall:
  • implement Biodiversity Action Plan
  • create new national parks and protected areas
  • make a strategy to combat invasive species
  • make wise use of wetland resources
  • promote ex situ conservation of biodiversity
  • implement national wetland policy
  • protect fish habitat and harvest fisheries in sustainable way
6. Air Quality and Noise

To prevent air pollution and noise government shall:
  • enforce ambient and indoor air quality standards
  • enact National Clean Air Act
  • enforce National Environmental Quality Standards
  • use catalytic converters in vehicles
  • promote cleaner production technologies
  • phase out two stroke vehicles
  • establish and enforce ambient noise standards
  • implant the Pakistan Clean Air Program
7. Climate Change and Ozone Depletion
To address the challenges faced by climate change and ozone depletion government shall:
  • implement national climate change action plan
  • develop National Clean Development Authority
  • phase out ozone depleting substances
8. Pollution and Waste Management

To prevent pollution and waste management government shall:
  • enforce National Environmental Quality Standards
  • introduce discharge licensing system for country
  • develop and implement National Sanitation Policy
  • promote reuse, recycle and reduce mechanism for waste handling
  • promote ISO 14000 certification
  • implement strategies to manage municipal, industrial and hospital waste at national, local and regional levels
CROSS SECTORAL ISSUES

1. Population and Environment

To address population environment nexus government shall:
  • incorporate environmental considerations into population policies, projects and programs
  • increase public awareness of  problems of population 
  • ensure equal access of land and resources to population
2. Gender and Environment

Environmental policies programs and projects are gender sensitive. For this government shall:
  • ensure women active participation in all environmental projects and programs
  • mainstream gender in all policies and programs
3. Health and Environment

To reduce health hazards due to environmental degradation government shall:
  • develop and implement Occupational Health and Safety Rules
  • include effective waste management system in all health care facilities
4. Trade and Environment

In this case government shall:
  • certify the public and private sector environmental laboratories
  • provide financial and other incentives
5. Poverty and Environment
  • Government shall integrate poverty environment issues in economic policies and plans.
  • It shall enhance community level environmental management.
6. Environment and Local Governance
  • Government shall establish nationwide district environment offices and district environment committees.
  • establish district development funds
7. Natural Disaster Management
  • Government shall develop a national disaster management strategy.
  • It shall also establish national disaster management centers at federal and provincial level.
POLICY INSTRUMENTS

The key instruments for implementation of policies are listed as:
  • Integration of environment into development planning
  • Legislation and regulatory framework
  • Capacity Development
  • Economic and Market based instruments
  • Public Awareness and Education
  • Public Private Partnership

WHAT IS CLEANER PRODUCTION?

  

INTRODUCTION

Different approaches are used to deal with environmental degradation problems since over long time industrialization was started in different nations. The approaches such as to avoid the problem; to dilute the pollutants so that to reduce the impacts of pollutants; treat the pollution after it happens (end of pipe solution); prevent the pollution at source by cleaner production techniques were used. It is clear from the approaches that from over long time shift has been taken place from avoid to prevent that would enhance the economic investments, and improve the environment. This is the primary goal of cleaner production.

"Cleaner production is defined as the adoption of integrated preventive environmental strategies applied to processes, products and services in order to reduce the impacts, risk and harm to the environment and humans." 

Cleaner Production in terms of Production Processes

Cleaner Production in terms of production includes the care taken during the production processes such as preservation of raw materials, prohibition of toxic raw materials use and declining the amounts of waste production and toxicity.

Cleaner Production in terms of Product Processes


Cleaner Production in terms of product involves the care taken in product development and design e.g. reduction of harmful impacts in the whole life cycle of product development from raw materials mining to disposal of wastes. 

Cleaner Production in terms of Services Processes

During the delivery of services environmental parameters should be taken into account.

Difference between Pollution Control and Cleaner production

The basic difference between pollution control and cleaner production is of time. Pollution control is done after the pollution occurs means end of pipe treatment, react and than treat. While cleaner production deals with prevention, prevention of pollution at source by using cleaner production techniques. It is said that prevention is better than cure. Cleaner production reduce or can completely eliminate the pollution control strategy. Cleaner production is applied already in fisheries, agriculture, tourism, transportation, hospitals, energy systems etc.

CLEANER PRODUCTION PRINCIPLES

  • Aim is to reduce the environmental and social impacts
  • Reduce the raw materials use and energy inputs
  • Reduce the toxicity of emissions and waste production
  • Use of system analysis approach
  • Production process is divided into inputs, activities and outputs
  • It use the waste management hierarchy that is:
  • Avoidance is better than reduction, reduction is better than reuse, disposal is on least priority. 
CLEANER PRODUCTION TECHNIQUES

Techniques used are:

Technological Advances

New equipments or new technologies are used such as heat exchangers used to capture heat from refrigerators.

Design Specifications

It is applied in the planning stage of development process

Housekeeping

Proper maintenance and proper workplace practices is one of better practice in clean production.

Process Optimization

Existing process could be optimized in order to reduce resource consumption patterns.

Raw material Substitution


Hazardous raw materials could be replaced with efficient raw materials.

BENEFITS OF CLEANER PRODUCTION

  • Reduction of environmental impacts and risks.
  • Improvement in production efficiencies
  • Decline in energy use and production of waste
  • Decrease in operating cost

RISKS AND BARRIERS OF CLEANER PRODUCTION

  • Hinderence by management to introduce change
  • High upfront cost with long paybacks
  • Some measures are not applicable to short buisness



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